The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?

ERDOGAN, AYFER

doi:10.25253/99.2021231.7

The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?

Ayfer ERDOĞAN (Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul, Türkiye)

Insight Turkey

10 2

Yıl: 2021 Cilt: 23 Sayı: 01 Sayfa Aralığı: 77 - 98 Metin Dili: İngilizce DOI: 10.25253/99.2021231.7 İndeks Tarihi: 01-12-2021

The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?

Öz:

The main challenge in relation to Mediterranean gas is the distri bution of potential gas reserves which inevitably entails delimitation ofmaritime borders. However, in the context of the Eastern Mediterranean,this is highly problematic mainly due to the status of the Greek islandsalong with their close proximity to the Turkish mainland and the failurein resolving the ‘Cyprus issue.’ There are two key questions in relation tothe Eastern Mediterranean crisis: (i) What are the contesting claims overmaritime border delimitation between Turkey, Greece, and the Greek Ad ministration of Southern Cyprus with reference to the international law?(ii) Why has the Eastern Mediterranean dispute been politicized so muchthat it has drawn in countries far from the region? This article examinesthe legal and political dimensions of the Eastern Mediterranean crisis byanalyzing the respective countries’ standpoints through the lens of interna tional law along with the implications of earlier such disputes. The articlealso investigates the political dimensions of the crisis by looking into alli ance formation and how existing political tensions in the region came tothe surface in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Anahtar Kelime:

Belge Türü: Makale Makale Türü: Araştırma Makalesi Erişim Türü: Erişime Açık

1. Umut Kedikli and Taşkın Deniz, “Enerji Kaynakları Mücadelesinde Doğu Akdeniz Havzası ve Deniz Yetki Alanları Uyuşmazlığı,” Alternative Politics, Vol. 7, No. 3 (October 2015), pp. 400-403.
2. Michael Ratner, “Israel’s Offshore Natural Gas Discoveries Enhance Its Economic and Energy Outlook,” Congressional Research Service, (January 31, 2011), retrieved November 10, 2020, from https://fas.org/ sgp/crs/mideast/R41618.pdf.
3. “ENI Discovers a Supergiant Gas Field in the Egyptian Offshore, the Largest ever Found in the Mediterranean Sea,” ENI, (August 30, 2015), retrieved November 12, 2020, from https://www.eni.com/en-IT/ media/press-release/20 15/08/eni-discovers-a-supergiant-gas-field-in-the-egyptian-offshore-the-largest-ever-found-in-the-mediterranean-sea.html.
4. Murat Temizer and Burak Bir, “Turkey to Continue Exploration in Eastern Mediterranean,” Anadolu Agency, (July 16, 2019), retrieved November 12, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkey-to-continue-exp loration-in-e-mediterranean/1533293.
5. “Letter Dated 18 March 2019 from the Permanent Representative of Turkey to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General,” United Nations, retrieved November 15, 2020, from https://undocs. org/en/A/73/804.
6. “France Joins Military Exercises in East Mediterranean,” Reuters, (August 26, 2020), retrieved November 15, 2020, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-greece-france-idUSKBN25M0UF.
7. Helena Smith, “Turkey Rejects Claims It Is Drilling Illegally for Gas off Cyprus,” The Guardian, (July 11, 2019), retrieved November 15, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/11/turkey-rejects-claims-drilling-illegally-gas-off-cyprus.
8. David Sheppard, Laura Pitel, and Michael Peel, “What Is at Stake in the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis?” Financial Times, (September 8, 2020), retrieved November 16, 2010, from https://www.ft.com/content/ e872ed5 d-1f64-48ae-8b8d-d6b49476e749.
9. “Turkey Suspends Oil Drilling in Med as ‘Goodwill Gesture,’” Hurriyet Daily News, (July 28, 2020), retrieved November 16, 2020, from https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-suspends-oil-drilling-inmed-as-goodwill-gesture-156941.
10. Greece signed and ratified the 1982 UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf whereas Turkey is not a party to either of the two conventions.
11. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea-Part V Exclusive Economic Zone,” UN, retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part5. htm.
12. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea-Part V Exclusive Economic Zone.”
13. “1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf,” UN, retrieved November 20, 2020, from https://legal. un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/8_1_1958_continental_shelf.pdf, p. 3
14. Andreas Jacovides,” Delimitation Practice in the Eastern Mediterranean,” European Rim Policy and Investment Council, (July 25, 2012), retrieved November 20, 2020, from https://erpic.org/wp-content/uplo ads/2017/02/delimitation-practice-in-the-eastern-mediterranean.pdf, p. 2.
15. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea-Part VIII Regime of Islands,” UN, retrieved November 20, 2020, from https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part8.htm.
16. Jacovides, “Delimitation Practice in the Eastern Mediterranean.”
17. Erdoğan Çağatay Zontur, “Map Delineates Turkey’s Maritime Frontiers in E. Med,” Anadolu Agency, (December 2, 2019), retrieved November 22, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/infographics/ map-delineates-turkeys-maritime-frontiers-in-emed/1661791.
18. Constantinos Yiallourides, “Part II: Some Observations on the Agreement between Greece and Egypt on the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone,” EJIL: Talk-Blog of the European Journal of International Law, (August 25, 2020), retrieved November 22, 2020, from https://www.ejiltalk.org/part-ii-someobservations-on-the-agreement-between-greece-and-egypt-on-the-delimitation-of-the-exclusiveeconomic-zone/.
19. Yiallourides, “Part II: Some Observations on the Agreement between Greece and Egypt on the Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone.”
20. Yücel Acer, “Doğu Akdeniz’de Deniz Yetki Alanları ve Türkiye-Libya Mutabakatı,” SETA Analysis, No. 301 (December 2019), p. 9.
21. “North Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany/ Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/ Netherlands),” International Court of Justice, (February 20, 1969), p. 49, retrieved November 22, 2020, from https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/52/052-19690220-JUD-01-00-EN.pdf.
22. “Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the French Republic (UK, France) Dated 30 June 1977-14 March 1978,” UN, (2006), retrieved November 23, 2020, from https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XVIII/3-413.pdf.
23. “Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of the Dispute (Eritrea and Yemen) Dated 9 October 1998,” UN, (2006), retrieved November 22, 2020, from https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXII/209-332.pdf.
24. “Case Concerning the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/ Malta) Judgment of 3 June 1985,” International Court of Justice, retrieved November 23, 2020, from https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/ case-related/ 68/068-19850603-JUD-01-00-EN.pdf.
25. “Case Concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/ Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) Judgment of 24 February 1982,” International Court of Justice, retrieved November 23, 2020, from https://www.icj-cij.org/public/ files/case-related/63/063-19820224-JUD-01-00-EN.pdf.
26. Irfan Kaya Ülger, “Analysis-Meis Island’s Status According to UN Law of the Sea Convention,” Anadolu Agency, (August 6, 2020), retrieved November 25, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/analysis/analysis-meis-islands-status-according-to-un-law-of-the-sea-convention/1933658.
27. Burak Bir and Havva Kara Aydin, “Greece Violates Int’l Agreements by Arming 18 Islands,” Anadolu Agency, (September 3, 2020), retrieved November 25, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/ greece-vio lates-intl-agreements-by-arming-18-islands/1972161.
28. Matthew Bryza, “Solving the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis Requires Compromise,” Atlantic Council, (September 23, 2020), retrieved November 25, 2020, from https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/turkeysource/ solving-the-eastern-mediterranean-crisis-requires-compromise/.
29. Cüneyt Yüksel and Deniz Baran, “Uluslararası Hukukta Doğu Akdeniz Krizi ve Türkiye ve Libya Arasındaki Deniz Yetki Alanlarını Sınırlandırma Mutabakatının Değerlendirilmesi,” Public and Private International Law Bulletin, Vol. 40, No. 1 (2020), p. 525.
30. “Treaty Concerning the Establishment of the Republic of Cyprus,” (1960), retrieved November 30, 2020, from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/kibris-cumhuriyeti_nin-kurulusuna-iliskin-temel-antlasma-_-1960__ ingilizce_.tr.mfa.
31. Yüksel and Baran, “Uluslararası Hukukta Doğu Akdeniz Krizi ve Türkiye ve Libya Arasındaki Deniz Yetki Alanlarını Sınırlandırma Mutabakatının Değerlendirilmesi,” p. 505.
32. “The Cyprus Issue (Overview),” Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved February 12, 2020, from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/the-cyprus-issue-overview.en.mfa.
33. “The Cyprus Issue (Overview).” 34. Yusuf Kanlı, “Two State Solution,” Hurriyet Daily News, (January 5, 2021), retrieved February 13, 2020, from https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf-kanli/two-state-solution-161388.
35. “Press Release Regarding the Second International Tender for Off-Shore Hydrocarbon Exploration Called by the Greek Cypriot Administration (GCA),” Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, (February 15, 2012), retrieved November 30, 2020, from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-43_-15-february-2012_-second-international-tender-for-off_shore-hydrocarbon-exploration-called-by-the-greek-cypriot-administration-_gca_.en.mfa.
36. Ali Murat Alhas and Jeyhun Aliyev, “Turkey Warns Greek Cypriots on Unilateral Acts on E.Med,” Anadolu Agency, (September 20, 2019), retrieved November 30, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/ energy/energy-dip lomacy/turkey-warns-greek-cypriots-on-unilateral-acts-in-emed/26678.
37. “Cyprus, Greece and Egypt Call on Turkey to End ‘Provocative’ Actions,” Reuters, (October 8, 2019), retrieved December 2, 2020, from https://br.reuters.com/article/us-cyprus-turkey-ship/cyprus-greeceegypt-call-on-turkey-to-end-provocative-actions-idUSKBN1WN1R0.
38. “Press Release by the Government of Malta ‘Valetta Declaration,’” Government of Malta, (June 14, 2019), retrieved December 2, 2020, from https://www.gov.mt/en/Government/DOI/Press%20 Releases/ Documents/PR 191327.pdf.
39. “Turkey’s Drilling Activities in the Eastern Mediterranean: Council Adopts Conclusions,” The Council of the European Union, (July 15, 2019), retrieved December 5, 2020, from https://www.consilium.europa. eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/07/15/turkish-drilling-activities-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-council-adopts-con clusions/.
40. “Turkey Investigates Vessel Drama, Rejects EU Sanctions Threat,” Al Jazeera, (November 27, 2020), retrieved December 5, 2020, from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/27/turkey-probes-germannavys-search-of-lib ya-bound-freighter.
41. “Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Hükümeti ile Libya Devleti Ulusal Mutabakat Hükümeti Arasında Akdeniz’de Deniz Yetki Alanlarının Sınırlandırılmasına ilişkin Mutabakat Muhtırası,” Resmi Gazete, (December 7, 2019), retrieved December 7, 2020, from https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2019/12/20191207-3.pdf.
42. Ilhan Sagsen, “Türkiye-Libya Anlaşması: Doğu Akdeniz’de Jeopolitik Denklem Değişiyor,” Anadolu Agency, (December 2, 2019), retrieved December 7, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/analysis-strategic-legal-aspects-of-turkey-libya-deal/1673079.
43. Nazlı Yüzbaşıoğlu, “Dışişleri Bakanlığı Sözcüsü Aksoy: Türkiye ve Libya Oldubittilere İzin Vermeyecek,” Anadolu Agency, (December 1, 2019), retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/disis leri-bakanligi-sozcusu-aksoy-turkiye-ve-libya-oldubittilere-izin-vermeyecek/1660813.
44. “Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Hükümeti ile Libya Devleti Ulusal Mutabakat Hükümeti Arasında Akdeniz’de Deniz Yetki Alanlarının Sınırlandırılmasına ilişkin Mutabakat Muhtırası.”
45. “Four Mediterranean Countries Call Turkey-GNA Deals ‘Void,’”Al Jazeera, (January 9, 2020), retrieved February 12, 2020, from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/1/9/four-mediterranean-countries-callturkey-gna-deals-void.
46. Daren Butler and Tuvan Gumrukcu, “Turkey Signs Maritime Boundaries Deal with Libya amid Exploration Row,” Reuters, (November 28, 2019), retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://www.reuters.com/ article/us-tur key-libya-idUSKBN1Y213I.
47. “Turkey Declares Egypt-Greece Maritime Deal ‘Null and Void,’” Middle East Eye, (August 6, 2020), retrieved December 9, 2020, from https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-slams-egypt-greecemaritime-ag reement-eastern-mediterranean.
48. Tevfik Durul, “Greece Ratifies Maritime Deal Signed with Egypt,” Anadolu Agency, (August 27, 2020), retrieved December 10, 2020, from https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/greece-ratifies-maritime-dealsigned-with-egypt/1955533.
49. “East Med Gas Forum Formally Set-Up,” Pipeline Oil and Gas News, (September 23, 2020), retrieved December 10, 2020, from https://www.pipelineoilandgasnews.com/regionalinternational-news/regional-news/20 20/september/east-med-gas-forum-formally-set-up/.
50. Ahmed Qandil, “East Med Gas Forum Turns into Regional Organization, in Blow to Turkey,” The Arab Weekly, (September 23, 2020), retrieved December 10, 2020, from https://thearabweekly.com/eastmed-gas-for um-turns-regional-organisation-blow-turkey.
51. “EastMed Gas Pipeline Flowing Full of Troubling Questions,” Deutsche Welle, (January 2, 2020), retrieved December 11, 2020, from https://www.dw.com/en/eastmed-gas-pipeline-flowing-full-of-troubling-questions/a-51871424.
52. “Calls Growing for EU Sanctions against Turkey over Actions in Eastern Mediterranean and Cyprus,” Euronews, (October 15, 2020), retrieved December 11, 2020, from https://www.euronews. com/2020/10/15/calls-growing-for-eu-sanctions-against-turkey-over-actions-in-eastern-mediterranean-and-cy.
53. “U.S. to Lift 33-Year Arms Embargo on Cyprus, Angering Turkey,” Reuters, (September 15, 2020), retrieved December 11, 2020, from https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-cyprus-turkey-int-idUSKBN25 S65D.
54. “Turkey Defies US as Russian S-400 Missile Defence Arrives,” BBC, (July 12, 2019), retrieved December 11, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48962885.
55. “First-Ever Official Visit by a Saudi Foreign Minister to Cyprus on Wednesday,” In-Cyprus, (September 10, 2019), retrieved December 12, 2020, from https://in-cyprus.philenews.com/first-ever-official-visitby-a-saudi-foreign-minister-to-cyprus-on-wednesday/.
56. “UAE to Send F-16’s to Crete for Training with Greek Military amid Tensions with Turkey,” Al Monitor, (August 24, 2020), retrieved December 12, 2020, from https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/08/uae-f16-crete-greece-turkey-eastern-mediterranean.html.
57. Branislaw Stonicek, “Turkey’s Military Operation in Syria and Its Impact on Relations with the EU,” European Parliament Research Service, (November 2019), retrieved December 12, 2020, from https://www. europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-Briefing-642284-Turkeys-military-operation-Syria-FINAL.pdf, p. 3.
58. Stonicek, “Turkey’s Military Operation in Syria and Its Impact on Relations with the EU.”
59. Senem Aydın-Duzgit, “The Seesaw Friendship between Turkey’s AKP and Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, (July 24, 2014), retrieved December 12, 2020, from https://carnegieendowment.org/2014/07/24/seesaw-friendship-between-turkey-s-akp-and-egypt-smuslim-brotherhood-pub-56243.
60. David Hearst, “Why Saudi Arabia Is Taking a Risk by Backing the Egyptian Coup?” The Guardian, August 20, 2013), retrieved December 13, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/ aug/20/saudi-arabia-coup-egypt.
61. Thomas Seibert, “A Year after Khashoggi Case, Turkish-Saudi Ties Are Deeply Strained,” The Arab Weekly, (September 28, 2019), retrieved December 13, 2020, from https://thearabweekly.com/year-after-khashoggi-case turkish-saudi-ties-are-deeply-strained.
62. Osama al-Fitory and Kareem Fahim, “Libyan Strongmen Battles Militias for Control,” The New York Times, (May 28, 2014), retrieved December 14, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/29/world/ africa/libyan-strongman-battles-militias-for-control.html.
63. Jason Pack and Wolfgang Pusztai, “Turning the Tide: How Turkey Won the War for Tripoli,” Middle East Institute, (November 2020), p. 1.
64. “Turkey to Use S-400s Just like Greece Using S-300s: Akar,” Hurriyet Daily News, (October 22, 2020), retrieved December 8, 2020, from https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-to-use-s-400s-just-likegreece-using-s-300s-akar-159366.
65. Militarization of Eastern Aegean Islands Contrary to the Provisions of International Agreements,” Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved December 6, 2020, from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/militarizati on-of-eastern-aegean-islands-contrary-tp-the-provisions-of-international-agreements.en.mfa.

APA	ERDOGAN A (2021). The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. , 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
Chicago	ERDOGAN AYFER The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. (2021): 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
MLA	ERDOGAN AYFER The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. , 2021, ss.77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
AMA	ERDOGAN A The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. . 2021; 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
Vancouver	ERDOGAN A The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. . 2021; 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
IEEE	ERDOGAN A "The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?." , ss.77 - 98, 2021. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
ISNAD	ERDOGAN, AYFER. "The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?". (2021), 77-98. https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2021231.7

APA	ERDOGAN A (2021). The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. Insight Turkey, 23(01), 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
Chicago	ERDOGAN AYFER The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. Insight Turkey 23, no.01 (2021): 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
MLA	ERDOGAN AYFER The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. Insight Turkey, vol.23, no.01, 2021, ss.77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
AMA	ERDOGAN A The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. Insight Turkey. 2021; 23(01): 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
Vancouver	ERDOGAN A The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?. Insight Turkey. 2021; 23(01): 77 - 98. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
IEEE	ERDOGAN A "The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?." Insight Turkey, 23, ss.77 - 98, 2021. 10.25253/99.2021231.7
ISNAD	ERDOGAN, AYFER. "The Legal and Political Dimensionsof the Eastern Mediterranean Crisis:What Is at Stake?". Insight Turkey 23/01 (2021), 77-98. https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2021231.7